Angola, also known as the Republic of Angola, is a country situated on the west-central coast of Southern Africa.
It is the second-largest Portuguese-speaking country in terms of both land area and population, ranking seventh among African nations.
The country shares borders with Namibia to the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Zambia to the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.
The country’s establishment as a nation-state can be traced to Portuguese colonization, which began with the establishment of coastal settlements and trading posts in the 16th century.
In the 19th century, European settlers gradually moved inland and settled in the interior. The present-day borders of Angola were not defined until the early 20th century due to resistance from native groups such as the Cuamato, Kwanyama, and Mbunda.
After a prolonged struggle for independence, Angola gained independence in 1975. However, it soon descended into a devastating civil war that started the same year.
Since independence, MPLA (People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola) has governed Angola continuously.
Following the end of the civil war in 2002, Angola transitioned into a relatively stable unitary presidential constitutional republic.
Angola possesses abundant mineral and petroleum reserves, contributing to its rapidly growing economy, especially after the civil war.
However, economic growth is unevenly distributed, with a significant portion of the nation’s wealth concentrated among a small segment of the population.
Angola is a member of various international organizations, including the United Nations, OPEC, the African Union, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, and the Southern African Development Community.
As of 2021, the estimated population of Angola is 32.87 million. The country is characterized by its multicultural and multiethnic society.
Angolan culture reflects centuries of Portuguese influence, particularly in terms of language dominance (Portuguese) and the presence of the Catholic Church, which coexist with a variety of indigenous customs and traditions.
The origin of the name Angola can be traced back to the Portuguese colonial period when it was referred to as the “Kingdom of Angola.”
This name was first mentioned in a charter issued by Paulo Dias de Novais in 1571. The Portuguese adopted this toponym from the title “ngola” used by the kings of Ndongo and Matamba.
History of Angola
Before the Bantu migrations, Angola was primarily inhabited by nomadic Khoi and San peoples who relied on hunting and gathering rather than farming or herding.
These indigenous groups were displaced by Bantu speakers who arrived from the north, likely originating from present-day northwestern Nigeria and southern Niger.
The Bantu introduced agriculture, including the cultivation of bananas, taro, and large cattle herds, which became prominent in Angola’s central highlands and the Luanda plain.
Several political entities were established in the region, with the Kingdom of Kongo being the most well-known.
The Kingdom of Kongo extended northward into the present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, and Gabon, and engaged in trade with other city-states and civilizations along the southwestern and western African coastlines.
The Kingdom of Ndongo and the Kingdom of Matamba were also significant entities in the area.
Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão arrived in the region in 1484, establishing relations with the Kingdom of Kongo.
The Portuguese established trading posts and settlements along the Angolan coast, primarily engaging in the slave trade.
The Portuguese presence expanded over time, facing challenges such as famines and diseases that affected the population.
The Dutch temporarily occupied Luanda during the Portuguese Restoration War but were eventually ousted by Portuguese forces.
Treaties were signed with local kingdoms, and Portuguese control over Angola gradually expanded. The slave trade was abolished in Angola in 1836, and slavery was completely abolished in 1854.
However, enforcement of these measures was challenging, and the Portuguese relied on assistance from the British Royal Navy to enforce the ban on the slave trade.
Portugal’s dominion in Angola extended as far north as the Congo River and as far south as Mossâmedes by the mid-19th century. Attempts to link Angola with Mozambique faced opposition from Britain and Belgium.
The Berlin Conference in 1884–1885 established the borders of Portuguese claims in Angola, although some details remained unresolved until the 1920s.
Protective tariffs led to increased trade between Portugal and its African territories, resulting in the development and influx of Portuguese immigrants.
The Portuguese army carried out military operations against the Mucubal people between 1939 and 1943, leading to significant loss of life through incarceration, forced labor, and harsh conditions.
Civil War in Angola
During the war of independence in Angola, the three rival nationalist movements faced significant challenges due to political and military factionalism, as well as their inability to unite against the Portuguese.
From 1961 to 1975, the MPLA, UNITA, and the FNLA competed for influence both within the Angolan population and in the international community.
The MPLA received support from the Soviet Union and Cuba, which supplied them with arms, funding, and training.
Initially, both the Soviet Union and Cuba also supported UNITA, but it became clear that UNITA and the MPLA had irreconcilable differences, leading to a shift in support.
The collapse of the Portuguese Estado Novo government following the 1974 Carnation Revolution resulted in a suspension of Portuguese military activities in Africa and the initiation of a ceasefire for negotiations on Angolan independence.
Encouraged by the Organisation of African Unity, the leaders of the three factions, Holden Roberto, Jonas Savimbi, and Agostinho Neto of the MPLA, met in Mombasa in January 1975 and agreed to form a coalition government.
This agreement, known as the Alvor Agreement called for general elections and set the independence date for November 11, 1975.
However, after the ceasefire, all three factions took advantage of the Portuguese withdrawal to seize strategic positions, acquire more arms, and expand their militant forces.
The influx of weapons from various external sources, particularly the Soviet Union and the United States, and escalating tensions among the nationalist parties fueled renewed hostilities.
The FNLA, with American and Zairean support, amassed a large number of troops in northern Angola in an attempt to gain military superiority.
Simultaneously, the MPLA secured control of Luanda, which was traditionally an Ambundu stronghold.
Clashes and violence erupted between the factions in Luanda and elsewhere, with UNITA becoming involved after suffering a significant loss of its members at the hands of the MPLA.
In August 1975, the MPLA requested direct military assistance from the Soviet Union, but the Soviets declined to send ground troops, offering advisers instead.
Cuba, on the other hand, dispatched combat personnel, sophisticated weaponry, and supplies to Angola.
By the time of independence, there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers in the country, supported by Soviet air transport.
The Cuban and Soviet military aid allowed the MPLA to drive its opponents from Luanda and repel the intervention of Zairean and South African troops, who had deployed to assist the FNLA and UNITA.
The FNLA suffered significant losses in the Battle of Quifangondo, while UNITA managed to withdraw its officials and militia from Luanda and continued an insurgent campaign against the MPLA.
From 1975 to 1991, the MPLA implemented a system based on scientific socialism, including central planning and a one-party state with Marxist-Leninist ideology.
The nationalization of privately-owned enterprises occurred, and the private sector was essentially abolished.
Angola experienced industrialization under the MPLA, but corruption and embezzlement of public resources by officials for personal gain increased.
The ruling party suppressed a coup attempt by the Maoist-oriented Communist Organisation of Angola in 1977, resulting in political purges and casualties.
The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale in 1987-1988, the most significant conventional military engagement of the civil war, ended in a stalemate and led to the withdrawal of Cuban and South African forces from Angola through the Tripartite Accord.
In 1990, the MPLA abandoned its Marxist ideology and adopted social democracy as its new platform.
Angola joined the International Monetary Fund, and restrictions on the market economy were reduced to attract foreign investment.
In 1991, the MPLA reached a peace agreement, known as the Bicesse Accords, with UNITA, which scheduled new general elections for September 1992.
However, when the MPLA achieved a major electoral victory, UNITA disputed the results and returned to war.
Following the elections, the Halloween massacre occurred, where MPLA forces killed thousands of UNITA supporters.
On February 22, 2002, Jonas Savimbi, the leader of UNITA, was killed in a battle against government troops.
Shortly after his death, UNITA and the MPLA reached a cease-fire agreement. UNITA disbanded its armed wing and transitioned into a major opposition party.
While the political situation in Angola began to stabilize, full democratic processes were not established until the elections in 2008 and 2012 and the adoption of a new constitution in 2010.
The Fight for Independence and Aftermath
During the colonial era, black Angolans were prohibited from forming political parties or labor unions under colonial law.
However, after World War II, nationalist movements began to emerge, led by an urban class that was largely Westernized and Portuguese-speaking, including many individuals of mixed race.
These movements were initially driven by labor activism among rural workers. Portugal’s refusal to address the growing demands for self-determination in Angola led to an armed conflict.
The conflict began in 1961 with the Baixa de Cassanje revolt and developed into a long-lasting war of independence that lasted for twelve years.
Throughout the conflict, three nationalist movements with their own guerrilla factions emerged from the fighting between the Portuguese government and local forces.
Another guerrilla movement, the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas Savimbi, emerged in central Angola and was primarily composed of the Ovimbundu ethnic group.
In 2017, José Eduardo dos Santos stepped down as President of Angola after 38 years in power, and he was peacefully succeeded by his chosen successor, João Lourenço.
Subsequently, some members of the dos Santos family were implicated in high-level corruption scandals. In July 2022, former president José Eduardo dos Santos passed away in Spain.
In August 2022, the ruling party MPLA won another outright majority in the election, and President João Lourenço secured a second five-year term.
Also read: 17 Angolan Dishes to Explore in 2023
However, the election marked the closest and most contested race in Angola’s history.
Source
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angola
